ci: Enable address sanitizer (ASan) stack-use-after-return checking #17205

Enable address sanitizer (ASan) stack-use-after-return checking (detect_stack_use_after_return=1).

Example:

#include <iostream>
#include <string>

const std::string& get_string(int i) {
    return std::to_string(i);
}

int main() {
    std::cout << get_string(41) << "\n";
}

Without address sanitizer (ASan) stack-use-after-return checking:

$ ./stack-use-after-return

$

With address sanitizer (ASan) stack-use-after-return checking:

$ ASAN_OPTIONS="detect_stack_use_after_return=1" ./stack-use-after-return
=================================================================
==10400==ERROR: AddressSanitizer: stack-use-after-return on address 0x7f7fa0400030 at pc 0x00000049d2cc bp 0x7ffcbd617070 sp 0x7ffcbd616820
READ of size 2 at 0x7f7abbecd030 thread T0
    [#0](/bitcoin-bitcoin/0/) 0x439781 in fwrite
    [#1](/bitcoin-bitcoin/1/) 0x7f7ac0504cb3 in std::basic_ostream<char, std::char_traits<char> >& std::__ostream_insert<char, std::char_traits<char> >(std::basic_ostream<char, std::char_traits<char> >&, char const*, long) (/usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libstdc++.so.6+0x113cb3)
    [#2](/bitcoin-bitcoin/2/) 0x4f9b5f in main stack-use-after-return.cpp:9:15
    [#3](/bitcoin-bitcoin/3/) 0x7f7abf440b96 in __libc_start_main
    [#4](/bitcoin-bitcoin/4/) 0x41bbc9 in _start
…
$

Concept ACK